Failed Colonies in the Americas

1. Excerpts from the Spanish do not consider that the French forces had been reduced by a hurricane prior to the attack. Instead, the chaplain of the Spanish expedition glorifies the leadership of the general in defeating the French and justifies it with support from God. Both sides emphasize the religious tensions underlying the attack, which points to the larger social and political context in Europe at this time.

2. The criteria and justification of their actions stem from a religious base. The Spanish sees their conquest as spreading the Catholic religion and combating Protestantism, even if it requires murdering otherwise innocent people. Since the Church was closely tied to the state at that time, this justification also serves as a political motivation, since successful conquests could simultaneously spread Catholicism and gain territory. Also, the French recognize the possibility that they could be killed over their religion, Lutheranism, but they accept defeat as a punishment for their previous sins, according to the text. Therefore, in both cases, religious arguments are used to explain and justify the circumstances.

3. The strength of their colonies lies in their conviction that their home countries will support them in their endeavor that aims to serve and to please God. However, a major weakness of the settlements is the consistent lack of food and resources.

4. The settlers ascribe famine and population decline to the work of God, but as is shown in the letter by Chaplain Quirós, he attributes their lack of ability to get free food from the Indians an error on their part.

5. The colonists' exhibited poor planning for their settlements, mainly by not bringing enough resources and not being knowledgeable of the landscape beforehand, which is true for both Fort Caroline and Ajacan. In Ajacan, the settlers adapted by getting food from the Indians, but this soon caused problems, especially in the winter since their food ran scarce. 

6. The Indians may have been able to help them in the short run, but since they didn't return the favors, that discouraged the already-suffering Indians from doing so in the long run, and may have even led to conflicts with them.

7. Their underestimation of the hardships presented by the terrain caused them many problems in finding and growing food, and also prevented them from navigating it effectively. All these issues result in a waste of their resources, which were already scarce.

8. The French leadership in Fort Caroline was already discouraged by their deteriorated forces in the face of the sudden attack by the Spanish, their surrender was an easy victory for the Spanish. In Ajacan, the leader prevented the settlers from bartering with the Indians, which led to their downfall as they lost resources and increased tensions between their two groups.

9. Demonstrated by the plight of the settlers in Fort Caroline and in Ajacan, sufficient resources and material reinforcements from the home country are vital for a successful colony. Equally important to a successful colony is cooperation with native populations and an attempt to understand the existing culture.

10. The colonists prepared for failure by having distress signals in place to alert White (if he ever returned) of their fate. The colonists also had a backup plan to go to Croatoan.

11. Fort Caroline ended with the Spanish conquest, while Roanoke ended supposedly from lack of resources.

12. Accounts of successful colonies will include those written by settlers themselves and provide a better picture of everyday life.

13. Better organization and preparation could have enabled the colonists to better face the challenges of the new environment.

14. Settlers can gain information about why these colonies failed (lack of reinforcement, tensions with natives) and hopefully learn from previous colonists' mistakes.

15. European rivalries' resulted in competition and fighting for these colonies that may have perpetuated their downfall, similar to Fort Caroline.

English Civil Wars

Although the population opposed King Charles I's execution, the English parliament carried out this desperate and aberrant act. The regicides were self-righteous fanatics, who had vengeance for the ungodly king who reopened the civil war in 1648. The Puritans believed that the world was distinguished between the pope and true religion. They also believed that Scriptures were the formulas for politics and other reformations. 

Thomas Dugard, a parliamentarian clergymen preached that King Charles I's issuing of the Book of Sports was the cause of the bloodshed. Charles's religious policies mimicked those of popery, and many believed that he had brought God's wrath upon them. Many believed that a lot had to be done in order to secure peace once again. 

After the king's death, Parliament regained power, and proceedings towards the king has some real basis in the political culture of England. Edmund Ludlow rejoiced that the king had sinned so openly, thus providing an excuse to execute him. Charles had attacked the constitution of the kingdom and had stirred bloody and unnecessary wars.   

Look at all this art!!!!

Medieval ArtStyles from the Middle East and Africa meshed with this time period (400-1300 AD). The medieval period encompasses eight major artistic movements : Byzantine, Islamic, Vikings, Carolingian, Celtic, Atonian, Romanesque, and Gothic art. Christianity was also flourishing around Europe when Constantine declared Christianity tolerated. Constantine's Byzantine relied on trade and stability. Catholicism reflected art of the east, though emerged in the west. Because of Christian belief, artists avoided three dimensional sculptures and stuck with one dimensional representations. Religions mosaics and frescoes appeared in medieval churches and cathedrals. Tessellated art reflected Islam, the Vikings had migratory art and wood and metal art. The Vikings are known for their golden brooches, with a geometric arrangement of gems. Emperor Charlemagne funded the construction of churches and encouraged the depictions of the human form. He spread literacy among his nobles, which led to the appearance of the Carolingian minuscule script. These manuscripts were covered in precious jewels and metals. The illuminated manuscripts were used for their daily activities, universities and monasteries. The Anglo-Saxon obsession with animal art influenced Celtic styles in the 7th century. Gothic Art Gothic art was first seen in cathedrals, having emerged out of France. In architecture drew inspiration from the Romanesque style. Romanesque cathedrals were low and wide, while Gothics were tall and flood with natural light. Ribbed vault, flying buttress, and pointed arch were the main identifying factors. France's cathedral of St. Dennis served as a burial place for every king. It is believed to be the first Gothic construction ever made. The art took on a naturalistic style, stain glass were introduced into churches for the first time. Flowers and geometrical design paint the windows. Sculpted saintly figures were used as columns, and illuminated manuscripts holds much evidence of these arts. By the end of the 14th century, the invention of the printing press more light-weight, compact, and accessible. The Book of Hours featured original illustrations and historical scenes. Gothic art was highly symbolic: Christ as a lamb. A gentle and innocent heart of a lamb is chosen to represent Christ. RenaissanceIt was the time of rebirth, exploration, and flourishing of the arts. Between the 14th and 16th century, a new age would bring Europe out of the dark period. It took place mainly in Italy but had massive influence. Knowledge and personal responsibility were the main points of this age. Linear perspective and the play of the light and dark tones of a painting were characteristics. It began as a literary movement, and it was quickly picked up by the arts, science, and math. New understanding of perspective made paintings sophisticated and deep. The Church was one of the most powerful forces of Europe asked artists to make sculptures and architecture. Using antiquity as a backdrop, artists began blending Greek and Roman symbols into Christian art. The Medici family became the most powerful dynasty in the region, and they commissioned hundreds of paintings. Leonardo was intelligent and his knowledge of anatomy, the stars, mechanics allowed him to paint powerful paintings. 

OMG! Mesoamerica!!!!

1. How does the speaker define the area that is "Mesoamerica"? 

Tiwam defines Mesoamerica as Mexico and Central America.
2. How did the topography of Mesoamerica impact civilizations?

In the center of Mesoamerica, there are high plateaus and mountains, whereas surrounding it would be lower elevation sloping to the sea. Topography was important because the lowlands and highlands produced different trade items that helped Mesoamerica prosper as a whole.
3. What goods were produced in the highlands and lowlands?

The highlands produced obsidian, and the lowlands, they produced seashells and feathers.
4. Why was is so difficult to move goods in Mesoamerica?

There were no navigable rivers, no beasts of burden, and no large domesticated animals making it difficult to move goods.
5. What accomplishments can we credit the Olmecs with?

The Olmecs had phenomenal sculptures (huge carved heads), they had ceremonial complexes (pyramids), and was the first to play basketball essentially. The Olmecs had two calendars, a solar one and a lunar one.
6. Describe the Olmec calendar system.

The solar calendar had 365 days, while the lunar only had 260 days.
7. What was the purpose of Olmec pyramids?

The purpose to to be able to hold ceremonies.
8. How were Mayan pyramids different than Olmec pyramids?

Mayan pyramids were steep and narrow compared to other pyramids.
9. Why was Mayan history "lost" at the time of contact?

Though the Mayans collapsed around 900, they were still present, but they abandoned many ceremonial sites. By the time the Spaniards arrived, the Mayans couldn't read the inscriptions on their temples.
10. How does she say that the Aztecs were different than other Mesoamericans?

The Aztecs were the most successful expansionists, they would enforce a harsh tribute system, and conquered from the Pacific coast to the Caribbean.
11. What was the purpose of the tribute systems of the Aztecs?

The tribute system aided in the growth of the population, as they conquered more and more people, the tribute system allowed them to add even more people.
12. Describe the Aztec creation myth. 

They believed that the world had been created and destroyed four times before their lives, and in the fifth, called the fifth sun, the gods met to create something out of the darkness. They asked one god to throw himself into the fire so the world could be created, but the god was a coward. So they asked a lesser god to sacrifice himself; ashamed, the first god also threw himself in. One by one the gods threw themselves into the fire and the sun and the moon and the universe rose.
13. How was sacrifice of women different than men?

Women usually danced at the base of the pyramid and then beheaded, while the men were taken to the altar and pierced in the heart with an obsidian blade, 

Comparison "Essay": Tang and Sui

The Tang and the Sui dynasties were similar socially and culturally, where both had improvements in their arts and were influenced by Han China, and they were different in politics and the causes for decline since women never came to power in the Sui and Tang fell because of rebellions.

Rulers of both dynasties were part nomad, since they were successors of the Han rulers. The dynasties had Chinese stratagems for war, but they also incorporated their nomadic lifestyles to their rule.

Another similarity of both dynasties were their architectural and artistic improvements. The Sui's most renowned structure was the Grand Canal, used to better commerce and social interactions. The Tang's greatest achievement in arts was block printing, making text transportable. Both of these creations improved their societies since it made communication more efficient.

Tang and Sui differed in politics since women were not allowed to become Emperor during the Sui dynasty. Empress Wu (of the Tang) was a ruthless character during her process of claiming the throne. She was the only women to bear the title of Empress, thus differentiating the Sui and Tang dynasty with her rule.

The Tang and Sui largely differed in their downfall. The Sui's economy collapsed after the construction of the Grand Canal and campaigns against the Koreans. The Sui government enforced brutal taxing and labor from the people, who were already strained from the reconstruction of the Great Wall. Sui fell because of economic decline and mismanagement of resources. The Tang had political corruption and rebellions that weakened the dynasty for an additional 150 years before the Arabs completely took over.

The Tang and Sui dynasties both had social and cultural similarities, where arts improved and Han rulers were their predecessors, and they had differences in politics and causes for decline since women never came to power in the Sui, and Tang fell to rebellions.  

Emperor Justinian and the Byzantine Empire

1. Hey, what's up with Justinian's wife, Theodora? 

Theodora was a former burlesque dancer, and Justinian named her co-empress.
2. Why was Justinian unpopular? 

Justinian was born a peasant, but his reign would be ruled by intelligence and brutality. He tried to stamp out prostitution, pagans, Jews, study of ancient Athenian philosophers, gambling, homosexuality, and any Christians that refuse to follow him.
3. What amazing fun things took place in the hippodrome? 

It was the center of Constantinople's public life--with its capacity of hundreds of thousands of people. It was a stadium for chariot racing, modeled after Rome's Circus Maximus.
4. Oh no, what did Justinian do at the hippodrome? 

He gathered his officers and marched to the hippodrome. He promises to compromise with the citizens, but once everyone was present, he closed the gates and had his soldiers massacre everyone.
5. Why did Justinian quickly move to rebuild Constantinople? 

He saw the opportunity to rebuild the city so that the power would ultimately be his own and in the name of God.
6. What was the monumental architecture built in Constantinople? 

The Church of Holy Wisdom, also known as the Hagia Sophia,
7. What's unique about this building? 

It was the large dome ever built, and it seemed to float in midair, because of its construction. The columns were elaborately designed, depicting Justinian and his wife. The Church became a significant location to the residents of Constantinople.
8. How did Justinian ultimately cause the downfall of Byzantium?

Justinian's constant military campaigning and the construction of the Church bankrupted the empire. 

"What's Rakestraw Up To?"

Rakestraw and his newly wedded wife, Duval, lept from the airplane, a smile dazzling both of their faces. "Welcome to our honeymoon!" Rakestraw sang out loud. Duval rolled her eyes, but nonetheless, she was just as excited as he. Rakestraw broke into a wild dance. Jazz hands. Lugging their heavy suitcases, they made their way out of the airport, meeting the salty draft with open arms. The sun burned bright, and tourists populated St. Martins. Rakestraw pointed to this little villas along the beach, but Duval didn't sea them; she was focused on the small pain in her toes.

"COD DAMMIT!" Duval cursed like a sailor, pulling her foot up from the sand, only to reveal the tiny crab upon her toesies. 

"Water you doing????" Rakestraw shrieked when she shook her foot viciously. "You have got to be squidding me!" Rakestraw and Duval rushed over to the villas, zig zagging through the crowd. 

And that marks the first incident upon arriving at St. Martins for the Rakestraws. Soon afterward, a whirlwind of wind and water swept through the island, but the Rakestraws had each other to cling to.

On the third day, Rakestraw rubbed his tiny hands together, like a villain who has an evil bunny upon his chair, and made the first contact with his students. He could imagine Andy's cackle as he took over the classroom, oh the destruction! 

He had told Andy, "When you've taken over, let minnow!" 

"I NEED SOME KELP OVER HERE!" Duval screeched from the kitchen. Rakestraw rushed to her, but when he arrived she said, "What did one ocean say to the other?"

Rakestraw shrugged, "Sea you soon?"

"Wrong!! They just waved. Now, what's the difference between a dirty bus station and a well endowed lobster?"

"Uhhhh."

"One's a crusty bus station, the other is a busty crustacean."

"For the love of Cod! KRILL ME NOW!" Rakestraw screamed, overwhelmed by awful jokes. 

"Whale you can dolphinately say I'm amazing, that's why you married meeee!" 

This, though, was true. "Fintastic," Rakestraw grinned, running straight through the open window and flopped into the ocean. He did love Duval, and this honeymoon was gonna be remembered. 

"Look At All This Art!"

Greek Art is normally classified in three categories: Archaic, Classical, and Hellenistic. Athenian influences are presented in Greek art, when Athens began to dominate Greece. Pericles, in hopes of drawing attention to his government, commissioned the Parthenon. Examples of Classical Greek art include the Athenian Parthenos, the birth of Athena, and a battle between Athena and Poseidon. In the Geometric period, the period coined by historians that is before Archaic, repetitive figures and shapes were common on pottery and paintings. During the Archaic period, vase painting was an important artform. Through complicated processes, they were able to achieve intricate and detailed images. The Classical period depicted myths, everyday lives, and comedians. Realistic sculptures began to emerge as artists redefined their technique, and the Contrapposto Pose became increasingly popular. Greeks preferred their subjects highly idealized.Corinthian columns were more dynamic than Doric or Ionic columns. For propaganda purposes, Hellenistic art was used in the Venus de Milo and the Winged Victory of Samothrace.

Roman art can be immediately related to Doric and Ionic columns, along with busts of famous men. Early Roman art drew from many different cultures and places. They used the Etruscans for influence, for example, circa 800 BCE. The Etruscans were dedicated to making funerary objects and burial places. Romans drew heavily from Greek style, and they also made realistic sculptures. Roman artists had a more realistic outlook on sculptures, while the Greeks perfected any flaws. Augustus emphasized art as a way of communication since it didn't require literacy. The widespread invention of concrete made even more advanced architectures possible. Aqueducts, bridges, public baths, the Pantheon, and the Colosseum were examples of Roman architecture. Soon Roman art began reflecting Christian themes. The decline in importance of Rome, also led to the decline in Roman art.

As it spread through the Roman empire, Christianity began influencing Roman art. However, this religion did not allow the recreation of divine images, so they prohibited sculptures, but allowed paintings to be created. The style and imagery were completely new since many artists came from other regions. This religion's art draws from many cultures and styles. The Roman catacombs were the first examples found of early Christian art. Most paintings had an impressionistic style; images of Christianity adorned the catacombs' walls. Christian sarcophagi had a blend of traditional Roman structures and Biblical scenes. Jesus was usually depicted with more light-hearted allegories such as the Good Sheppard, the Peacock, the anchor, and the Lamb. Sculptures were detailed and proportional, though people with higher influence had larger sculptures. Christian art is divided into two periods: before and after of the Edict of Milan. Once Christianity no longer needed to be disguised, the period of Byzantine art began.

Confucianism BBC Podcast

Confucius believed that the people were the sole importance of society, and one should treat each other with compassion and humanity. He stressed the importance of family and family relations. Although his teachings were simple common "rules" of life, Confucius's disciples' written text made him famous. Confucius believed that the key to a functioning government was education. One can achieve enlightenment by personal means and meditation. Once China was unified, Confucianism held the empire together for another few hundred years until the first rule of the Han dynasty. The work of the disciples significantly lengthened the endurance of Confucianism since many other early philosophers had not documented their ideas. Buddhism in China, as it emerged with the Tang dynasty, emphasized personal salvation. The Book of Songs was a prominent Confucian text as it contains folk songs and the way of Chinese life. Arts and literature presents many Confucian ideas and further expanded the area in which Confucianism can spread so vastly.

Religion Review

Judaism

Judaism originated around thirty five thousand years ago in the Middle East, and it is also the parent religion from where Christianity and Islam derived. Jews, in attempt to return God's well-doing, followed God's laws and incorporated holiness into their lives. The most important religious document of this religion is the Torah. Spiritual leaders were called Rabbis and they often spoke at synagogues, their place of worship. In 920 BCE, the kingdom collapses, and the Jewish people split into many groups. In 600 BCE, their main place of worship, their temple, was destroyed, and Jews were sent into exile. As time passed, Jews were allowed more religious freedom, until the King of Syria destroyed the temple completely in attempt to establish the worship of Zeus. There was a revolt in 164 BCE, and the temple was restored. In 63 BCE, the Jewish allowed the Romans to establish control, and in the following years, Jewish people were taxed and oppressed by the unfitting rulers. Jesus was the believed messiah, but he soon branched into a new religion, Christianity. Teaching academies were founded in the first century, led by scholars to discuss the word of God. Beginning in 70 CE, the Jewish could no longer bear to be under Roman control. In 150 years, two revolts were led: one revolt resulted in the destruction of the temple, and the second resulted in the exile of Jews in Jerusalem. In 200 CE, scholars compiled a collection of teachings and sayings called the Mishna, and later, an expanded version, the Talmud, would provided even more insight on the Jewish teachings. By 439 CE, Romans banned Jews from official jobs.

Zoroastrianism

Founded by Zoroaster, Zoroastrianism is one of the world's oldest monotheistic religions. In the Classical Period, it was Persia's main religion; however, it has lost a considerable amount of followers. Zoroastrians believed that fire was pure and represent God's light and wisdom. Their book of Holy Scriptures is called the Avesta, which is divided into two parts. One part contains original hymns written by Zoroaster himself, the other contains myths and stories. Cyrus founded the first Persian empire, and he ruled himself with Zoroastrian beliefs. He had religious tolerance for the Jews, and his successor, Darius the Great also had religious tolerance. When Alexander the Great defeated Darius, many Zoroastrian texts were destroyed. Under the rule of the Sasanians, a single church was created under the control of Persia, the modern calendar system was created, and periodic persecution of Christians and Jews occurred.  Zoroastrians, under the Sasanians, had no religious tolerance, and soon the the religion became oppressive and ritualized. The Sasanian Empire fell to Islamic conquests in the 7th century.

Christianity

Being the most popular religion, Christianity has over two billion followers around the world. Christians believe that Jesus is the messiah from the Old Testament and was the son of God. They believe in a singular god, though split into three forms. Priests and ministers lead worship in churches and various places, and they taught from the Bible. The history of Christianity was focused on the life and death of Jesus, the son of god. He is believed to have been the messiah that would free the Jews from captivity. Around the age of thirty, he taught with his twelve disciples, healed many, and worked miracles. His death and his resurrection were popular, but had it not been for Paul, Christianity may have remained a small religion. Paul established many Christian churches, but many Roman rulers were disapproving until the rule of Constantine. Constantine made Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire. When Rome fell in 476, Eastern and Western Christians were no longer under the same political rule. 

Buddhism

Based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, Buddhism is around 2,500 years old, and currently has over 376 million followers. Buddhism arose when Siddhartha Gautama searched for Enlightenment in the sixth century BCE. Buddhists believed that a central god was not present, and change is always possible. Enlightenment can be achieved through practice or morality, meditation, and wisdom. The Buddha, having born in a royal family, sought Enlightenment when he saw the suffering and death around him. He traveled away from home, and lived a life of extreme self-denial and discipline. He achieved Enlightenment through extreme meditation, became the Buddha, and taught many disciples. By 600 CE, Buddhism spread to China, Tibet, Nepal, Japan, and Korea through the fluent trade system of the Silk Road. 

Hinduism

Consisting of 900 million followers, Hinduism exists mostly in Nepal and India. With no significant founder, Hinduism was developed through many teachings of various philosophers and belief systems. It originated around the Indus River Valley and consisted of eighty percent of the the Indian population. Many texts and stories were written during the Classical Period, and many elements of worship are still present today. The Rise of the Gupta Empire aided in the development of the Vaishnavism, Shaivism, and Shaktism. This period was a time of literary development. 

Buddhism and Its Spread Along the Silk Road

Along with trade and migration, the Silk Road carried religion through and across Central Asia and India. Buddhism left arts and literature that still captivates us today. The birth of Buddhism was in India, where Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha) was born and raised. By the age of twenty, he retreated from the palace in search of enlightenment after witnessing suffering and death. He achieved enlightenment at Bodha Gaya and had his first sermon at Sarnath. He continued to travel and teach Buddhism until his death at eighty years old. His body was cremated, and relics were divided among eight clans. The clans built memorials for Buddha, and his death led to a massive increase in converters as many great leaders converted. The Indian king, Ashoka allowed Buddhist monks to move across their empire, and thus they made their way to the Kushan/Bactrian kingdom. 

The Kushans controlled trade between India, China, Parthia and the Roman Empire, so Buddhism diffused even farther. Soon, villages developed a distinctive Graeco-Buddhist art form. Then Buddhism penetrated the Sassanians and Parthians. Style of Buddhist art traveled eastward, and Buddhism reached its peak in the 8th and 9th centuries. This religion traveled to the Tarim basin, and by 658 Kucha became the leading center of Hinayana Buddhism. The nomads then established the faith in the Steppes, becoming less barbaric and soon joined civilization. Some Turkish rulers were patrons of Buddhism, but by 680 Eastern Turks disassociated themselves once again. 

When the Silk Road opened in the second century, missionaries spread to China, Central Asia, and India. A Han emperor dreamed of Buddha and sent his official to Central Asia to learn more about Buddhism. The official returned with Buddhist scriptures, art, and two monks. After a Buddhist community was established, the translation of scriptures and spread of Buddhist art spread rapidly throughout China. During the fourth century, Kumarajiva organized the first translation bureau, and his team translated over 98 works from many languages into Chinese. He promoted the growth of Buddhism, and the religion had two million followers. The collapse of the Tang dynasty resulted in the decline of Buddhism, and the conversion of Islam began around the eighth century.  Islam condemned iconography, so many Buddhist temples and statures were destroyed. By the 18th century, the entirety of Central Asia converted to Islam. Buddhism's lasting impact on Central Asia's art became a fusion of western and eastern cultures.  Buddha's earliest image resembled Apollo, but later other cultures contributed to the image of the Buddha. Buddhist architectures created great temples, and artists created detailed wall paintings. 

• What was the impact of Buddhist beliefs on nomads in the steppes? The nomads became less barbaric, grew more peaceful and soon joined nearby civilizations. 

• What was Kumarajiva's role in spreading Buddhism in China? Kumarajiva and his team translated many works to Chinese, thus expanding the religion as people understood the concepts.

• How did Buddhist art change in the 200sCE? Before the third century, there was no depiction of Buddha's image, but in the Gandharan culture, representations of Buddha became popular. 

• What caused Buddhism along the Silk Road to decline? The collapse of the Tang dynasty and the invasion of the Arabs caused Buddhism's decline. 

A Tour Through Ancient Rome

The year 320 AD was the peak of the Roman Empire in urban development. As a result, massive archaeological structures were built. The Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus, atop the Capitoline Hill, was the main temple of Roman state cult. Further away from the Capitoline Hill lies the Palatine Hill, which became a palace where the emperor lived. Circus Maximus held chariot races, animals hunts, and parades. The daily lives of Romans were constituted by their social classes and professions. They were famous for their aqueducts such as Aqua Claudia to transfer water to all parts of the city by the sheer force of gravity. These aqueducts sent water to public fountains and baths such as the Baths of Trajan. 

Built by Vespasian, the Colosseum (or the Flavian Amphitheater to the Romans) was originally private property made into personal land under the rule of Nero. It reflected Roman society with its seating arrangement. The emperor and officials sat closest to the action when watching gladiator combats, animal hunts, and executions; behind them were the senators, wealthy businessmen, and then at the very top were the women, slaves, and foreigners. The largest temple of the state was the Temple of Venus and Rome, where two temples stood back-to-back. Venus's Temple faces the Colosseum depicting leisure; whereas Roma's Temple faces the Forum depicting a more serious side of Roman society.

The Forum had monuments honoring great men, various building which were used as courthouses, and a spacious yard to hold speeches and parades. The Pantheon was a massive temple created to celebrate Roman emperors and depicted advance archaeological structures, such as the rotunda and arches inside the Pantheon. 

Alexander the-not-so Great, am I right, Persians?

Alexander the Great, one of the great military geniuses, was viewed slightly differently from the Persian's perspective. Alexander destroyed Persepolis and many other cultural and religious sites of the Persian empire. The empire was largest in the world at that time, so conquering it would greatly benefit Macedonia. The Greeks admired Alexander long before he conquered Persia; they admired Alexander's character and ability to rule over such a vast empire. Though he was reckless and brutal, he had respect for Persians, and soon, they absorbed him into their history.

• What is the basic Western perception of Alexander the Great? Alexander the Great is admired as the great conqueror of the Persian empire and a supreme military genius of his time. 
• Why did he destroy Persepolis? He sought revenge on Persian ruler Xerxes for burning the Acropolis, so he destroyed Persepolis after a drunken night. 
• What is the "Greek version" of Alexander's conquest of Persia? To the Greeks, Alexander was fluent in conveying authority to conquered people, so much so that people were inspired by him and strived to please him. 
• What was Persia's actual standing in the world like? The Persian empire was the greatest in the world at that time. The empire provided sanctuary to people wary of the Athenian government, and Alexander had great respect for them. 
• How did the Persians gain advantage in the Peloponnesian War? Cyrus the Younger spent years gaining the favor of the Greeks and was able to recruit over ten thousand Greek mercenaries. 
• How do the Persians portray Alexander? He was a reckless, irresponsible destroyer, but in time, the Persians embraced him.