"Look At All This Art!"

Greek Art is normally classified in three categories: Archaic, Classical, and Hellenistic. Athenian influences are presented in Greek art, when Athens began to dominate Greece. Pericles, in hopes of drawing attention to his government, commissioned the Parthenon. Examples of Classical Greek art include the Athenian Parthenos, the birth of Athena, and a battle between Athena and Poseidon. In the Geometric period, the period coined by historians that is before Archaic, repetitive figures and shapes were common on pottery and paintings. During the Archaic period, vase painting was an important artform. Through complicated processes, they were able to achieve intricate and detailed images. The Classical period depicted myths, everyday lives, and comedians. Realistic sculptures began to emerge as artists redefined their technique, and the Contrapposto Pose became increasingly popular. Greeks preferred their subjects highly idealized.Corinthian columns were more dynamic than Doric or Ionic columns. For propaganda purposes, Hellenistic art was used in the Venus de Milo and the Winged Victory of Samothrace.

Roman art can be immediately related to Doric and Ionic columns, along with busts of famous men. Early Roman art drew from many different cultures and places. They used the Etruscans for influence, for example, circa 800 BCE. The Etruscans were dedicated to making funerary objects and burial places. Romans drew heavily from Greek style, and they also made realistic sculptures. Roman artists had a more realistic outlook on sculptures, while the Greeks perfected any flaws. Augustus emphasized art as a way of communication since it didn't require literacy. The widespread invention of concrete made even more advanced architectures possible. Aqueducts, bridges, public baths, the Pantheon, and the Colosseum were examples of Roman architecture. Soon Roman art began reflecting Christian themes. The decline in importance of Rome, also led to the decline in Roman art.

As it spread through the Roman empire, Christianity began influencing Roman art. However, this religion did not allow the recreation of divine images, so they prohibited sculptures, but allowed paintings to be created. The style and imagery were completely new since many artists came from other regions. This religion's art draws from many cultures and styles. The Roman catacombs were the first examples found of early Christian art. Most paintings had an impressionistic style; images of Christianity adorned the catacombs' walls. Christian sarcophagi had a blend of traditional Roman structures and Biblical scenes. Jesus was usually depicted with more light-hearted allegories such as the Good Sheppard, the Peacock, the anchor, and the Lamb. Sculptures were detailed and proportional, though people with higher influence had larger sculptures. Christian art is divided into two periods: before and after of the Edict of Milan. Once Christianity no longer needed to be disguised, the period of Byzantine art began.

Confucianism BBC Podcast

Confucius believed that the people were the sole importance of society, and one should treat each other with compassion and humanity. He stressed the importance of family and family relations. Although his teachings were simple common "rules" of life, Confucius's disciples' written text made him famous. Confucius believed that the key to a functioning government was education. One can achieve enlightenment by personal means and meditation. Once China was unified, Confucianism held the empire together for another few hundred years until the first rule of the Han dynasty. The work of the disciples significantly lengthened the endurance of Confucianism since many other early philosophers had not documented their ideas. Buddhism in China, as it emerged with the Tang dynasty, emphasized personal salvation. The Book of Songs was a prominent Confucian text as it contains folk songs and the way of Chinese life. Arts and literature presents many Confucian ideas and further expanded the area in which Confucianism can spread so vastly.

Religion Review

Judaism

Judaism originated around thirty five thousand years ago in the Middle East, and it is also the parent religion from where Christianity and Islam derived. Jews, in attempt to return God's well-doing, followed God's laws and incorporated holiness into their lives. The most important religious document of this religion is the Torah. Spiritual leaders were called Rabbis and they often spoke at synagogues, their place of worship. In 920 BCE, the kingdom collapses, and the Jewish people split into many groups. In 600 BCE, their main place of worship, their temple, was destroyed, and Jews were sent into exile. As time passed, Jews were allowed more religious freedom, until the King of Syria destroyed the temple completely in attempt to establish the worship of Zeus. There was a revolt in 164 BCE, and the temple was restored. In 63 BCE, the Jewish allowed the Romans to establish control, and in the following years, Jewish people were taxed and oppressed by the unfitting rulers. Jesus was the believed messiah, but he soon branched into a new religion, Christianity. Teaching academies were founded in the first century, led by scholars to discuss the word of God. Beginning in 70 CE, the Jewish could no longer bear to be under Roman control. In 150 years, two revolts were led: one revolt resulted in the destruction of the temple, and the second resulted in the exile of Jews in Jerusalem. In 200 CE, scholars compiled a collection of teachings and sayings called the Mishna, and later, an expanded version, the Talmud, would provided even more insight on the Jewish teachings. By 439 CE, Romans banned Jews from official jobs.

Zoroastrianism

Founded by Zoroaster, Zoroastrianism is one of the world's oldest monotheistic religions. In the Classical Period, it was Persia's main religion; however, it has lost a considerable amount of followers. Zoroastrians believed that fire was pure and represent God's light and wisdom. Their book of Holy Scriptures is called the Avesta, which is divided into two parts. One part contains original hymns written by Zoroaster himself, the other contains myths and stories. Cyrus founded the first Persian empire, and he ruled himself with Zoroastrian beliefs. He had religious tolerance for the Jews, and his successor, Darius the Great also had religious tolerance. When Alexander the Great defeated Darius, many Zoroastrian texts were destroyed. Under the rule of the Sasanians, a single church was created under the control of Persia, the modern calendar system was created, and periodic persecution of Christians and Jews occurred.  Zoroastrians, under the Sasanians, had no religious tolerance, and soon the the religion became oppressive and ritualized. The Sasanian Empire fell to Islamic conquests in the 7th century.

Christianity

Being the most popular religion, Christianity has over two billion followers around the world. Christians believe that Jesus is the messiah from the Old Testament and was the son of God. They believe in a singular god, though split into three forms. Priests and ministers lead worship in churches and various places, and they taught from the Bible. The history of Christianity was focused on the life and death of Jesus, the son of god. He is believed to have been the messiah that would free the Jews from captivity. Around the age of thirty, he taught with his twelve disciples, healed many, and worked miracles. His death and his resurrection were popular, but had it not been for Paul, Christianity may have remained a small religion. Paul established many Christian churches, but many Roman rulers were disapproving until the rule of Constantine. Constantine made Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire. When Rome fell in 476, Eastern and Western Christians were no longer under the same political rule. 

Buddhism

Based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, Buddhism is around 2,500 years old, and currently has over 376 million followers. Buddhism arose when Siddhartha Gautama searched for Enlightenment in the sixth century BCE. Buddhists believed that a central god was not present, and change is always possible. Enlightenment can be achieved through practice or morality, meditation, and wisdom. The Buddha, having born in a royal family, sought Enlightenment when he saw the suffering and death around him. He traveled away from home, and lived a life of extreme self-denial and discipline. He achieved Enlightenment through extreme meditation, became the Buddha, and taught many disciples. By 600 CE, Buddhism spread to China, Tibet, Nepal, Japan, and Korea through the fluent trade system of the Silk Road. 

Hinduism

Consisting of 900 million followers, Hinduism exists mostly in Nepal and India. With no significant founder, Hinduism was developed through many teachings of various philosophers and belief systems. It originated around the Indus River Valley and consisted of eighty percent of the the Indian population. Many texts and stories were written during the Classical Period, and many elements of worship are still present today. The Rise of the Gupta Empire aided in the development of the Vaishnavism, Shaivism, and Shaktism. This period was a time of literary development. 

Buddhism and Its Spread Along the Silk Road

Along with trade and migration, the Silk Road carried religion through and across Central Asia and India. Buddhism left arts and literature that still captivates us today. The birth of Buddhism was in India, where Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha) was born and raised. By the age of twenty, he retreated from the palace in search of enlightenment after witnessing suffering and death. He achieved enlightenment at Bodha Gaya and had his first sermon at Sarnath. He continued to travel and teach Buddhism until his death at eighty years old. His body was cremated, and relics were divided among eight clans. The clans built memorials for Buddha, and his death led to a massive increase in converters as many great leaders converted. The Indian king, Ashoka allowed Buddhist monks to move across their empire, and thus they made their way to the Kushan/Bactrian kingdom. 

The Kushans controlled trade between India, China, Parthia and the Roman Empire, so Buddhism diffused even farther. Soon, villages developed a distinctive Graeco-Buddhist art form. Then Buddhism penetrated the Sassanians and Parthians. Style of Buddhist art traveled eastward, and Buddhism reached its peak in the 8th and 9th centuries. This religion traveled to the Tarim basin, and by 658 Kucha became the leading center of Hinayana Buddhism. The nomads then established the faith in the Steppes, becoming less barbaric and soon joined civilization. Some Turkish rulers were patrons of Buddhism, but by 680 Eastern Turks disassociated themselves once again. 

When the Silk Road opened in the second century, missionaries spread to China, Central Asia, and India. A Han emperor dreamed of Buddha and sent his official to Central Asia to learn more about Buddhism. The official returned with Buddhist scriptures, art, and two monks. After a Buddhist community was established, the translation of scriptures and spread of Buddhist art spread rapidly throughout China. During the fourth century, Kumarajiva organized the first translation bureau, and his team translated over 98 works from many languages into Chinese. He promoted the growth of Buddhism, and the religion had two million followers. The collapse of the Tang dynasty resulted in the decline of Buddhism, and the conversion of Islam began around the eighth century.  Islam condemned iconography, so many Buddhist temples and statures were destroyed. By the 18th century, the entirety of Central Asia converted to Islam. Buddhism's lasting impact on Central Asia's art became a fusion of western and eastern cultures.  Buddha's earliest image resembled Apollo, but later other cultures contributed to the image of the Buddha. Buddhist architectures created great temples, and artists created detailed wall paintings. 

• What was the impact of Buddhist beliefs on nomads in the steppes? The nomads became less barbaric, grew more peaceful and soon joined nearby civilizations. 

• What was Kumarajiva's role in spreading Buddhism in China? Kumarajiva and his team translated many works to Chinese, thus expanding the religion as people understood the concepts.

• How did Buddhist art change in the 200sCE? Before the third century, there was no depiction of Buddha's image, but in the Gandharan culture, representations of Buddha became popular. 

• What caused Buddhism along the Silk Road to decline? The collapse of the Tang dynasty and the invasion of the Arabs caused Buddhism's decline. 

A Tour Through Ancient Rome

The year 320 AD was the peak of the Roman Empire in urban development. As a result, massive archaeological structures were built. The Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus, atop the Capitoline Hill, was the main temple of Roman state cult. Further away from the Capitoline Hill lies the Palatine Hill, which became a palace where the emperor lived. Circus Maximus held chariot races, animals hunts, and parades. The daily lives of Romans were constituted by their social classes and professions. They were famous for their aqueducts such as Aqua Claudia to transfer water to all parts of the city by the sheer force of gravity. These aqueducts sent water to public fountains and baths such as the Baths of Trajan. 

Built by Vespasian, the Colosseum (or the Flavian Amphitheater to the Romans) was originally private property made into personal land under the rule of Nero. It reflected Roman society with its seating arrangement. The emperor and officials sat closest to the action when watching gladiator combats, animal hunts, and executions; behind them were the senators, wealthy businessmen, and then at the very top were the women, slaves, and foreigners. The largest temple of the state was the Temple of Venus and Rome, where two temples stood back-to-back. Venus's Temple faces the Colosseum depicting leisure; whereas Roma's Temple faces the Forum depicting a more serious side of Roman society.

The Forum had monuments honoring great men, various building which were used as courthouses, and a spacious yard to hold speeches and parades. The Pantheon was a massive temple created to celebrate Roman emperors and depicted advance archaeological structures, such as the rotunda and arches inside the Pantheon. 

Alexander the-not-so Great, am I right, Persians?

Alexander the Great, one of the great military geniuses, was viewed slightly differently from the Persian's perspective. Alexander destroyed Persepolis and many other cultural and religious sites of the Persian empire. The empire was largest in the world at that time, so conquering it would greatly benefit Macedonia. The Greeks admired Alexander long before he conquered Persia; they admired Alexander's character and ability to rule over such a vast empire. Though he was reckless and brutal, he had respect for Persians, and soon, they absorbed him into their history.

• What is the basic Western perception of Alexander the Great? Alexander the Great is admired as the great conqueror of the Persian empire and a supreme military genius of his time. 
• Why did he destroy Persepolis? He sought revenge on Persian ruler Xerxes for burning the Acropolis, so he destroyed Persepolis after a drunken night. 
• What is the "Greek version" of Alexander's conquest of Persia? To the Greeks, Alexander was fluent in conveying authority to conquered people, so much so that people were inspired by him and strived to please him. 
• What was Persia's actual standing in the world like? The Persian empire was the greatest in the world at that time. The empire provided sanctuary to people wary of the Athenian government, and Alexander had great respect for them. 
• How did the Persians gain advantage in the Peloponnesian War? Cyrus the Younger spent years gaining the favor of the Greeks and was able to recruit over ten thousand Greek mercenaries. 
• How do the Persians portray Alexander? He was a reckless, irresponsible destroyer, but in time, the Persians embraced him.